The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11. This stage begins at birth and lasts until a child is around 18 months old. calls for increased attention to and research on positive emotions, Examples of those who are naturalist learners include. __________ is the psychologist most often credited with making the major breakthroughs in understanding self-actualization. OSBORNECOMPANYIncomeStatementsFortheYearsEndedDecember31\begin{array}{c} less likely to be perceived by their teenagers as _____, The phenomenon of parents of being overprotective of their millennial-generation children and constantly checking their whereabouts has been referred to as, Psychology "I didn't know I had a choice" ch, Chapter 2: Reviewing Your Childhood and Adole, Chapter 1 - Invitation to Personal Learning a. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Defense mechanisms can be thought of as _____ that we use to protect our self-concept against unpleasant emotions. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. achieving individuation, or a fully harmonious and integrated personality. From the self-in-context view, ________ is a time of finding one's own voice and beginning to developing a sense of autonomy. According to Erik Erikson, the antithesis of generativity is ________. Basic Trust vs Basic Mistrust 5. He enjoys being around people and has many friends. Earlypresidentstendedtoexecutethelawspassedbythelegislatureandservenomorethantwoterms. a. \text{Other expenses and losses}\\ According to Erik Erikson, the psychosocial crisis of the school age is. The Life Cycle Completed. Developmental Themes o Early childhood often represents a struggle for independence and self-mastery. o They push for independence, but also feel overwhelmed o Critical to achieve balance at this age o Erikson referred to the ages of 2-3 as toodles o This stage is known at automy vs doubt, children who successfully master this stage develop a sense of self . Vogel-Scibilia SE, McNulty KC, Baxter B, Miller S, Dine M, Frese FJ. The term ___________ refers to your cognitive awareness about yourself. According to Erikson, the core struggle during infancy is trust vs. mistrust Parents who squelch any emerging individuality and who do too much for their children are indirectly saying "Let us do this for you because you're to clow, too clumsy, or too inept to do things for yourself" Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. BalCash1,050+AssetsAccountsReceivable1,350+Supplies+Land11,700==LiabilitiesAccountsPayable7,900++StockholdersEquityCommonStock3,600+RetainedEarnings2,600. \text{Net sales}&\text{\$\hspace{2pt}1,890,540}&\text{\$\hspace{2pt}1,750,500}\\ From the self-in-context view, ________ is a period of searching for an identity, continuing to find one's voice, and balancing caring of self with caring about others. If you define success as striving to learn something new and stretching yourself even at the risk of encountering struggle and setbacks, it is likely that you have, Barbara wants to be the "perfect mother." These examples reflect differences in, Children who do not develop secure attachments in infancy, may still develop a positive self-image and healthy relationships, especially if they have access to social support and find a mentor during childhood, Elliot Aronson, Robin M. Akert, Samuel R. Sommers, Timothy D. Wilson. The category of U.S. imports with the greatest value is a. capital goods. at each age, a specific psychological struggle contributes to the formation of personality. According to Erikson, although Barbara thinks she is being an effective parent, her daughter is likely to develop a sense of, Parents who squelch any emerging individuality and who do too much for their children are indirectly saying \qquad\text{Income taxes payable}&\underline{\text{\hspace{20pt}43,500}}&\underline{\text{\hspace{10pt}42,000}}\\ She failed at tasks that were easily accomplished by most of her schoolmates. Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about psychology. A Closer Look at the Eight Psychosocial Stages. 13 Q Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. "Depreciation is a period expense for financial statement purposes." She tends to be overprotective, doing things for her 3-year-old daughter that the child can very well do for herself. Orenstein GA, Lewis L. Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development. \\ The markup rate is 65%65 \%65% of the cost. According to Erikson, a child of preschool age who is unduly restricted or whose choices are ridiculed tends to experience. Generatively vs Stagnation 4. c. trust vs. mistrust. Trust vs. Mistrust: Psychosocial Stage 1. Meeus W, van de Schoot R, Keijsers L, Branje S. Identity statuses as developmental trajectories: A five-wave longitudinal study in early-to-middle and middle-to-late adolescents. Delta Air Lines buys a new jet from Boeing for $200 million. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. What is the probability that this shipment came from the more reliable supplier? According to Erik Erikson, _____________________ is defined as an illusion perpetrated and perpetuated by particular society that is somehow chosen to be the human species, According to Erik Erikson, ___________________ refers to the time when people begin to take their place in society and assume responsibility for whatever society produces. To avoid feelings of failure as a mother and a wife, she is using, Parents who embrace the attitude "it's my way or the highway" are According to Erik Erikson, the conflict between systonic and syntonic elements produces an ego quality or ego strength which is referred to as a (n) basic mistrust Erik Erikson believed that infants learn _______ if they find no correspondence between their oral-sendory needs and their enviornment. According to Erikson, the conflict that characterizes the preschool years is, According to Erikson, a critical time for forming personal identity, finding meaningful life goals, and creating meaning in life is during. According to Erik Erikson, ________________ is circumscribed not so much by time as by the acquisition of intimacy at the beginning of the stage and the development of generatively at the end, According to Erik Erikson, the _________________ matches the latency years of Sigmund Freud's theory, According to Erik Erikson, the conflict between the dystonic and syntonic elements produces an ego quality or ego strength which is referred to as an ____________________. Erik Erickson believed that from adolescence on, psychological struggle takes the form of an _________. calls for increased attention to and research on positive emotions. According to Erik Erikson, the conflict between autonomy and ________________ becomes the major psychosocial crisis of early childhood. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. Erik Erikson believed that the primary psychosocial task of adolescence was establishing an identity. c. identify with their own gender. c. Expenditures on property, plant, and equipment substantially exceeded the addback for depreciation expense each year. It also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human beings and the important influence that social relationships have on development. How does a person move from one stage to the next? Answer: b From: Chapter 11 lecture notes Jamie Kaiser Community Ment Health J. & \text {Modern presidents have scaled back since Teddy Roosevelt to a scope more like that of Washington.} Erikson's theory also has its limitations and attracts valid criticisms. _________ is defined as the generation of new beings as well as new products and new ideas. b. widen their circle of significant persons. One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for resolving conflicts and moving from one stage to the next are not well described or developed. Erik Erikson believed that _______ is the basic strength of adulthood. According to Erikson, the primary dilemma of infancy is A a) trust versus mistrust. Helen is a college student who suffers from test anxiety and fear of failure. In regard to change, Corey & Corey believe that, If you are making change happen in your life, other may not appreciate all of the ways you're changing, According to Maslow, self-actualization is possible only when, Maslow found that self-actualizing people had the following characteristics, A capacity to tolerate and even welcome uncertainty in their lives; Spontaneity and creativity; and a need for privacy and solitude. physiological; safety; love and belongingness; self-esteem; self-actualization. Erikson's 8 Stages of Development Stage 1: Trust versus Mistrust Stage 2: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Stage 3: Initiative versus Guilt Stage 4: Industry versus Inferiority Stage 5: Identity versus Role Confusion Stage 6: Intimacy versus Isolation Stage 7: Generativity versus Stagnation Stage 8: Integrity versus Despair If she feels like taking an easier math class this semester, that's her choice." \text{Stockholders equity}\\ According to Erik Erikson, the seventh stage of development is ________. Erik Erikson believed that during adolescence, young people learn to cope with the psychosocial conflict of _______. (B)TeddyRooseveltsstewardshiptheorygreatlyexpandedthescopeofthepresidency.ModernpresidentshavescaledbacksinceTeddyRoosevelttoascopemorelikethatofWashington. EarlierPresidentsLaterPresidents(A)Earlypresidentstendedtoexecutethelawspassedbythelegislatureandservenomorethantwoterms. ________ developed a theory largely based on his early childhood experiences of struggling to overcome weaknesses and feelings of inferiority. . b. widen their circle of significant persons. (A)(B)(C)(D)EarlierPresidentsEarlypresidentstendedtoexecutethelawspassedbythelegislatureandservenomorethantwoterms.TeddyRooseveltsstewardshiptheorygreatlyexpandedthescopeofthepresidency.TimesofnationalstabilityledtoacontractioninpresidentialscopeunderJamesBuchanan. Those who remainunsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future. Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Erik Erikson believed that the ego develops throughout the various stages of life according to a: Young adulthood is marked by the psychosocial crisis of __________________. He explains his predicament by saying "Everyone does it! cooperation, harmony, interdependence, achievement of socially oriented group goals, and collective responsibility. \underline{\textbf{Assets}}&\underline{\textbf{2014}}&\underline{\textbf{2013}}\\[5pt] Erikson's theory of psychosocial development gives us a way to view the development of a person through an entire lifespan. A random sample of 20 items from this shipment is tested, and 1 of the parts is found to be defective. AssetsCurrentassetsCashDebtinvestments(short-term)AccountsreceivableInventoryTotalcurrentassetsPlantassets(net)TotalassetsLiabilitiesandStockholdersEquityCurrentliabilitiesAccountspayableIncometaxespayableTotalcurrentliabilitiesBondspayableTotalliabilitiesStockholdersequityCommonstock($5par)RetainedearningsTotalstockholdersequityTotalliabilitiesandstockholdersequity2014$60,10074,000117,800126,000377,900649,000$1,026,900$160,00043,500203,500220,000423,500290,000313,400603,400$1,026,9002013$64,20050,000102,800115,500332,500520,300$852,800$145,40042,000187,400200,000387,400300,000165,400465,400$852,800. Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. h. Declared and paid a cash dividend of $2,000. Empirical studies conducted on what constitutes happiness have found which factors as being very important ingredients for overall happiness? \qquad\qquad\text{Total stockholders equity}&\underline{\text{\hspace{15pt}603,400}}&\underline{\text{\hspace{5pt}465,400}}\\ According to Erik Erikson, the _________ matches the latency years of Sigmund Freud's theory. Tombo Mono Correction Tape sells for $3.29\$ 3.29$3.29. \\ This stage covers the period of early adulthood whenpeople are exploring personal relationships.. There are three ways that HIV can be transmitted from mother to baby: (1) during the prepartum period, when HIV can spread through the placenta to the fetus in the blood stream; (2) during deliverythe intrapartum periodwhen the baby may be exposed to the mother's blood during birth, especially through lesions in the mother's vagina . b. J Youth Adolesc. No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Aziz has read that handwriting reveals important details about personality. 12 Q According to Erikson, an infant whose parents do not attend reliably to his or her needs is likely to lack the ego strength of A b) hope. She has two children who are reacting with chaos to the change in their lives. This is an example of, Kevin is a 32-year-old unemployed man who lives with his parents. all of these, According to Erikson, the conflict that characterizes the preschool years is. Emotional intelligence pertains to the ability, control impulses In its ability to ______, Erik Erikson's theory lacks sufficient scope and is limited mostly to developmental stages and therefore is rated low on this criterion. According to Erik Erikson, the antithesis of wisdom and the core pathology of old age is ________. 1 general exam- lmsw questions with complete solutions 2023 exam 2 lmsw test prep (practice questions, definitions, etc. List expenses in decreasing order by amount. Erikson, EH & Erikson, JM. NetsalesCostofgoodssoldGrossprofitSellingandadministrativeexpensesIncomefromoperationsOtherexpensesandlossesInterestexpenseIncomebeforeincometaxesIncometaxexpenseNetincome2014$1,890,5401,058,540832,000500,000332,00022,000310,00092,000$218,0002013$1,750,5001,006,000744,500479,000265,50020,000245,50073,000$172,500, OSBORNECOMPANYBalanceSheetsDecember31\begin{array}{c} Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world. He explains his predicament by saying "Everyone does it! To Erik Erikson, the ego exists as potential at birth, but it must emerge from within a _______. From the self-in-context view, ________ is a time for increasing one's understanding of one's self in terms of gender, race, culture, and abilities, as well as a time for developing empathy. Adolescents struggle with questions such as "Who am I?" and "What do I want to do with my life?" Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit. talladega high school basketball. \end{array} According to Erikson, young adulthoodis the period during which many people get married or develop significant relationships. Verywell / Nusha Ashjaee. How is Maslow's hierarchy of needs organized? He is able to visualize clear images when he thinks about things. Integrity vs. despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson's stage theory of psychosocial development. Erik Erickson believed that _______________ is the image we have of ourselves in the variety of social roles we play. shame and doubt These individuals will attainwisdom, even when confronting death. That's why we pay taxesso parents don't have to deal with their children's education. c. Introverts are more easily conditioned to emotional stimuli than those high in Neuroticism. The development of cognitive schemata begins in early infancy with experiences that are given core, or established, meaning over time (Beck & Emery, 1985). Write equation of the line for this graph. Thank you, {{form.email}}, for signing up. She is fearful of being seen as foolish, so she seldom initiates any action. c. "If you make mistakes, you will feel bad about yourself, so we will help you establish a healthy dependency on us." b. initiative vs. guilt. 2016;16(1):8-23. doi:10.1080/15283488.2015.1121820. \hline Erikson, a psychoanalyst and professor at Harvard, produced what was to become psychology's most popular and influential theory of human development. MODULE 4 The Self from Various Perspective For a young person, it is almost a sin, or at least a danger, to too preoccupied with himself; but for the ageing person, it is a duty and a necessity to devote serious attention to himself. e. all of these , A concept of Erikson's theory of personality development is that, human development occurs over the entire life span, Patrick likes to "party" on the weekends and was recently charged with driving while intoxicated. Chapter 5 - Early Childhood. Transcribed image text: Mix and match the following: The term autonomy refers to According to Erikson, the core struggle during infancy is A. generativity vs stagnation Transactional analysis is a theory of personality and a method of counseling that was originally developed by cimature independence and interdependence Who was the developer of b. consumer goods. Once our physiological needs have been met, our focus will then be meeting our, Ron is living on the streets. He seems to learn best by relating, sharing, and participating in cooperative group environments. \textbf{December 31}\\ Erikson's theory was based on what is known as the epigenetic principle. answer choices Trust vs. Mistrust Identity vs. Role Confusion Initiative vs. This is an example of. (Ch: 7 p. 223). Therefore, adolescents, are likely to affirm some values and reject others. Based on this information, it is likely that his parents raised him using. Erikson emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of development. Michael likes to read maps, charts, and diagrams. c. trust vs. mistrust. Erik Erikson defined ________________ as the period from about age 60 to the end of life. \hline (C) & \text {Times of national stability led to a contraction in presidential scope under James Buchanan.} Performed services for a customer and received cash of$6,300. Romantic and sexual relationships can be an important part of this stage of life, but intimacy is more about having close, loving relationships. At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions. Explain how each component of the scientific attitude can help Aziz investigate the accuracy of the information he has read about handwriting analysis. 2009;45(6):405-14. doi:10.1007/s10597-009-9189-4, Malone JC, Liu SR, Vaillant GE, Rentz DM, Waldinger RJ. Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following periods of development. The trust vs. mistrust stage is the first stage of psychologist Erik Erikson 's theory of psychosocial development. Children develop _______ only when their environment allows them some self-expression in their control of sphincters and other muscles. What is the markup of the tape? Some research may support certain aspects of this theoretical framework, but that does not mean that every aspect of the theory is supported by evidence. What is post freudian theory? 5. According to Erik Erikson, ________ is the feeling of not being certain, the feeling that something remains hidden and cannot be seen. TimesofcrisissuchasduringtheGreatDepressionledtotheexpansionofthepresidentspowersunderFranklinD. His model - including eight stages of psychosocial growth - replaced Freud's controversial theory centered on psychosexual development. \qquad\text{Interest expense}&\underline{\text{\hspace{20pt}22,000}}&\underline{\text{\hspace{20pt}20,000}}\\ \text{Bonds payable}&\underline{\text{\hspace{15pt}220,000}}&\underline{\text{\hspace{5pt}200,000}}\\ It also stressed the importance of social relationships in shaping personality and growth at each point in development. What is the likely explanation for this difference in amounts? This is an example of. Who is a considered a pioneer in the development of family therapy? a. his cries are soothed, her smiles are met with yours) your actions effect . e. Introverts have less control over emotional reactions than those high in Psychoticism. Mo . Researchers Wim Beyers and Inge Seiffge-Krenke questioned the appropriateness of Erik Erikson's stage ordering ____________ and ______________. ", Kevin is a 32-year-old unemployed man who lives with his parents. b. reading, watching videotape, According to Maslow, self-actualization is possible only when. According to Erik Erikson, the primary psychosexual mode during the play age is _________. \text{Total liabilities and stockholders equity}&\underline{\underline{\text{\$\hspace{2pt}1,026,900}}}&\underline{\underline{\text{\$\hspace{1pt}852,800}}}\\ According to Erik Erikson, the conflict between systonic and syntonic elements produces an ego quality or ego strength which is referred to as a(n). Give two reasons why full costs are more widely used than variable costs for guiding pricing. Chapter 8 - Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory, PSYC 341 CH: 6, Horney: Psychoanalytic Social, PSYC 341 CH: 5; KLEIN: OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY, PHIL 201 Study guide 4,5, and 6 Liberty Unive, Information Technology Project Management: Providing Measurable Organizational Value, Operations Management: Sustainability and Supply Chain Management, Anderson's Business Law and the Legal Environment, Comprehensive Volume, David Twomey, Marianne Jennings, Stephanie Greene, Elliot Aronson, Robin M. Akert, Samuel R. Sommers, Timothy D. Wilson. Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. According to Erikson, the core pathology of infancy is answer withdrawal Unlock the answer question Erikson's theory may be called "post-Freudian" because answer he built his theory on foundations that Freud laid. e. Collected cash from a customer on account, $200. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. ANS: C PG: 42 10. . According to Erik Erikson, the __________ ___________ refers to people's experiences with their body. d. increase their capacity to understand and use language. Seventy percent of the shipments come from a supplier whose shipments typically contain 10% defectives, while the remainder are from a supplier whose shipments typically contain 20% defectives. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Indentify vs Indentify confusion 3. ModernpresidentshavescaledbacksinceTeddyRoosevelttoascopemorelikethatofWashington. in the context of erikson's psychosocial. Erik Erickson believed that the ______________ is responsible for out being satisfied or dissatisfied not only with our physical self but with our entire personal identity. Potty training plays an important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. - Carl Jung The development of self-understanding in adolescence involves a number of theories about the self, identity, and personality. Erik Erikson defined ________ as mature devotion that overcomes basic differences between men and women. Sue is using the following defense mechanism, Cyberbullying is a formidable threat among teens, and can lead to all of the following except, A psychological moratorium, recommended by Erikson, is a period, when adolescents are given permission by society to experiment with different roles, According to Erikson, during the preschool years children will, initiate many of their own activities. Sue is using the following defense mechanism: Mary is getting a divorce from a man who cheated on her. Which of the following is not a characteristic of self-actualizing people? According to Erikson, the core struggle during infancy is trust vs. mistrust. Physiological, safety, love & belongingness, self esteem, self actualization, a way of deepening self knowledge by sharing with others, Freud developed a model for understanding early development based on, Erikson's psychosocial theory stresses the, integration of self-concept with the ideal self, According to Erikson, the core struggle during infancy is, Parents who squelch any emerging individuality and who do too much for their children are indirectly saying, "Let us do this for you because you're to clow, too clumsy, or too inept to do things for yourself", Psychology "I didn't know I had a choice" ch, 10 , , forest words, Totalliabilitiesandstockholdersequity, Arlene Lacombe, Kathryn Dumper, Rose Spielman, William Jenkins, Elliot Aronson, Robin M. Akert, Timothy D. Wilson. Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Prepare the income statement of Davis Resources, Inc., for the month ended June 30, 2012. The theory was significant because it addressed development throughout a person's life, not just during childhood. ", Erikson's psychosocial theory stresses the. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present. Analyze the effects of the preceding transactions on the accounting equation of Davis Resources, Inc. To aid in addressing these challenges, we propose the following terminology and classification for discussing conceptual and operational definitions: (1) degree of centrality - differentiating . Erik Erikson defined _______________ as a widening commitment to take care of the persons, the products, and the ideas one has learned to care for. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits. If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. "We insist Iryna take the most demanding math course and bring home an A+." farmers, botanists, hunters, ecologists, and landscapers. Net cash provided by operating activities for 2014 was $220,000. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. Psychologists, counselors, and nurses today use the concepts of Erikson's stages when providing care for aging patients. Erik H.Erikson: Psychoanalytic theory Classical theory was reformulated by Erik H.Erikson and its principles for better understanding of the modern world. Explain. \qquad\text{Cash}&\text{\$\hspace{15pt}60,100}&\text{\$\hspace{5pt}64,200}\\ Which of the following statements would they most likely make? \text{Bal} & \text{1,050} & \quad & \text{1,350} & \quad & \quad & \quad & \text{11,700} & \quad & \text{7,900} & \quad & \text{3,600} & \quad & \text{2,600}\\ Erik Erikson defined ________ as the period from about age 60 to the end of life. _________ is the chief psychosexual accomplishment of young adulthood and exists only in an intimate relationship. The theory can, however, be a helpful way to think about some of the different conflicts and challenges that people may face as they go through life. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. Basic trust is ordinarily _______, whereas basic mistrust is ________. Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of development. & \text {The imperial presidency reached its peak with Andrew Jackson.} Perspectives on Personality. love and intimate relationships, work, genetics, personality, A central concept of the humanistic approach to personal growth is, the importance of nonjudgmental listening and acceptance as a condition for people to feel free enough to change. By how much will GDP change if firms increase their investment by $8 billion and the MPC is 0.80? . Erikson referred to life's fifth psychosocial task as one of identity versus role confusion when adolescents must work through the complexities of finding one's own identity. While Erikson was influenced by Freud, he downplays biological sexuality in favor of the psychosocial features of conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless, he said that at this stage we usually become involved in the classic "Oedipal struggle" and resolve this struggle through "social role identification." Basic trust is ordinarily _________________, whereas basic mistrust is ______________. So what exactly did Erikson's theory of psychosocial development entail? Leaders, who are only human, struggle with the same developmental issues.. This stage occurs between the age of 18 months and around age 2 or 3 years. &\underline{\textbf{2014}}&\underline{\textbf{2013}}\\[5pt] Erik Erikson believed that infants learn _______ if they find no correspondence between their oral-sendory needs and their enviornment. According to Erik Erikson, in every stage of life there is a conflict between a _______ (harmonious) element and a ________ (disruptive) element.

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